Courtyard Housing in China: Chinese Quest for Harmony

The Chinese have lived in single-extended-family courtyard houses in many parts of China for thousands of years. The earliest courtyard house found in China was during the Middle Neolithic period (5000-3000 BCE). The courtyard form signifies Chinese quest for harmony with nature and in social relationships. However, the 20th century was a significant turning point in the evolution of Chinese courtyard houses; this paper provides an overview of this transition. It starts by briefly introducing traditional Chinese courtyard houses and their decline since 1949, it then examines the emergence of new courtyard housing in Beijing and Suzhou since the 1990s, and then it evaluates the new development of Chinese-style courtyard garden villas in/around these two cities since the 2000s, such as Beijing Guantang and Suzhou Fuyuan villa estates. They are explorations of a new way to honor Chinese architectural history and philosophy, meanwhile, incorporating Western interior design principles to meet modern living requirements. This architectural acculturation represents Chinese sustained quest for harmony in their art of living. The paper finally proposes four designs of new courtyard garden houses for future practice.


Introduction
This paper is a chronological overview of the transformation of Chinese courtyard houses over the last 60 years . It briefly introduces traditional Chinese courtyard houses from ancient times and their decline since 1949, it then examines the rise of new courtyard housing in Beijing and Suzhou since the 1990s, and the focus is on the growth of Chinese-style courtyard garden villas in/around Beijing and Suzhou since the 2000s. The original contributions are in the discussion of the two generations of new courtyard house types based on the author's onsite and online surveys, as well as the four designs of new courtyard garden houses for future practice.
Two historic and cultural cities in China, Beijing and Suzhou, have been chosen as the case-study sites because they have followed the city planning principles set in the Record of Trades in Rituals of Zhou (Zhou Li Kao Gong Ji) and Feng Shui theory. Their traditional courtyard houses embedded in their urban fabric are representative of traditional Chinese urban culture despite their climatic differences. Beijing is a northern Chinese city with a rich history of 3000 years, and as China's capital for 800 years; its famous siheyuan (courtyard houses) with strict axial, bilateral, symmetrical, and hierarchical planning embody the Confucian ideal of "harmony in social relationships." Suzhou is a southern Chinese city with a prosperous history of 2500 years, and was a regional capital renowned also for its private gardens enclosed within courtyard house compounds, whose spontaneous layouts reflect the Daoist principle of "harmony with nature." They were thought to offer a good comparison of their traditional courtyard use and the contemporary new courtyard housing.

THE QUEST FOR HARMONY THROUGH COURTYARD HOUSES
The courtyard house is one of the oldest types of human habitat, spanning at least 5000 years and occurring in distinctive forms in many parts of the world across climates and cultures, such as China, India, the Middle East and Mediterranean regions, North Africa, ancient Greece and Rome, Spain, and Latin-Hispanic America (Blaser, 1985(Blaser, , 1995Edwards et al., 2006;Knapp, 2005;Land, 2006;Ma, 1999;Pfeifer and Brauneck, 2008;Arenibafo, 2017;Polyzoides et al., 1982Polyzoides et al., /1992Rabbat, 2010;Reynolds, 2002).
Archaeological excavations unearthed the earliest courtyard house in China during the Middle Neolithic period, represented by the Yangshao culture (5000-3000 BCE) (Liu, 2002). Ancient Chinese people favored the courtyard form because it offered light, air, and views, as well as defence, security, family privacy, and control of noise and dust. Moreover, the courtyard functioned as a place for cultural activities and festivities when weather permitted (Knapp, 2005;Ma, 1993Ma, , 1999Zhang, 2011Zhang, , 2013Zhang, /2016Zhang, , 2015a. A traditional Chinese house would normally host an extended family of three or four generations, and courtyards or lightwells (tianjing) were important features in the layout of a fully built Chinese house. The shape and size of the courtyards are determined by the amount of sunlight desired in the space. For example, in southern China, the courtyards are smaller, called tianjing (lightwells), to reduce the summer sunlight; whereas in northern China, the courtyards are relatively large to allow abundant sunlight in the winter.
Philosophically, the courtyard is the soul of Chinese architecture; it acts as a link between Heaven and Earth. During the Han dynasty (c.206 BCE-220 CE), the Chinese regarded Heaven and Earth as a macrocosm and the human body a microcosm to reflect the universe (Chang, 1986); offering sacrifices to Heaven and Earth in the courtyard was considered crucial to bringing harmony and good fortune (Flath, 2005   Although China's population has more than doubled (2.3 times) between 1953and 2010(Census 1953Census 2010), the family structure has decreased from extended to nuclear families, a trend echoed elsewhere in the world (Amato, 2008;UN, 2002;Van Elzen, 2010). Statistics show that until recently, the average household size in China had remained relatively constant at about 5.2 persons (Jervis, 2005); it reduced to 3.96 persons in the 1990 Census, 3.44 persons in the 2000 Census, and 3.1 persons in the 2010 Census. The drop is either due to the state-imposed "One Family One Child" policy implemented since 1979 (and began to be formally phased out in 2015), or free choices under circumstances of rapid modernization.
The vertical, parent-son relationship typically found in traditional Chinese families is being replaced by the horizontal, conjugal tie as the axis of family relations in contemporary China (Yan, 2005). Thus, Chinese family structure evolved from a complex corporate organization to a relatively simple conjugal unit, in which family life revolves around the couple's pursuit of financial independence, privacy, and personal space (Cohen, 2005;Yan, 2005;Zhang, 2010).

THE FALL OF TRADITIONAL COURTYARD HOUSES IN CHINA
The change in Chinese family structure demands a subsequent change in the housing form, which has implications for new housing design (Cohen, 2005;Jervis, 2005). The modern housing units are frequently built with extra rooms for the future married son and his wife, and in anticipation of the later development of a stem family (Jervis, 2005). Similarly, in the multifamily courtyard house compounds of Beijing, the grown-up children required additional rooms in the courtyards, which made the courtyards filled with impromptu extensions. This situation has led to the physical decline and massive demolition of Beijing's siheyuan (traditional courtyard houses) and hutong (lanes) ( Table 1).   " b. 1990-1994) prototype in the Nanluogu xiang area (Wu, 1991(Wu, , 1994(Wu, , 1999Zhang, 2013Zhang, /2016Zhang, , 2016a; and the Nanchizi ("South Pond New Courtyard Housing Estate," b. 2003) experiment on the east side of the Forbidden City (Lin, 2003(Lin, , 2004Zhang, 2013Zhang, /2016). In inner Suzhou, similar projects to modernize traditional housing forms include Tongfangyuan ("Aleurites Cordata Fragrant Garden Housing Estate," b. 1996) and Shilinyuan  These projects have attempted to reinterpret classical Chinese courtyard houses while resettling multi-families in 2-storey row/town/terraced houses or 2-4-storey walk-up apartments surrounding communal courtyards. The author's doctoral study (Zhang, 2006(Zhang, -2012 investigated the above five new courtyard housing prototypes (Table 2) on their architectural, environmental, spatial, constructional, social, cultural, and behavioral aspects, to see whether they are culturally sustainable, and whether they facilitate residents' traditional cultural expressions. Four key themes in Chinese philosophy that have influenced imperial city planning and classical courtyard house design were identified: Harmony with Heaven, Harmony with Earth, Harmony with Humans, and Harmony with Self. This information became the benchmark against which change and continuity were measured.
Based on data collected through a number of research methods, including onsite surveys (N=290), interviews (total N=93) with residents (n=82), architects (n=6), planners (n=3), and real estate developers (n=2), time diaries (n=22), architectural drawings, photos, planning documents, conversation and observation notes, journals, real estate magazines, brochures, and related material, the findings suggest that due to the high population density and a lack of land in the inner cities of Beijing and Suzhou, the new courtyards are generally too small to admit enough sunlight. The architectural drawings show that the new courtyard proportions are no longer preserved as in tradition (Zhang, 2013(Zhang, /2016(Zhang, , 2016a. To achieve the same amount of sunlight as in traditional Chinese courtyard houses, the ratio of building height to distance should be at least 1:3 for Beijing (Zhang, 2006(Zhang, , 2011(Zhang, , 2016a and 1:1.3 for Suzhou, which means a minimum of 18 m distance for 6 m high surrounding buildings in Beijing, and a minimum of 12 m distance for 9 m high surrounding buildings in Suzhou. However, the two Beijing cases and two of three Suzhou cases have not met these criteria, which have seriously affected their environmental quality (Zhang, 2013/2016).
The findings further reveal that the interior spaces of new courtyard housing are generally small in Beijing Juer Hutong and Nanchizi, they are larger and more satisfactory in Suzhou Jiaanbieyuan and Shilinyuan. These results may be related to less restrictive planning regulations but more rigorous construction requirements set by the Suzhou municipal government. Interior space of 120-180 sqm per unit for a 3-4-person household is generally satisfactory. The findings also indicate that most residents prefer to live in low-rise housing of 1-3 storeys for practical reasons, and living close to the earth is still preferred. Residents have expressed a preference for pitched roofs than flat ones because they have experienced better thermal performance of pitched roofs. These outcomes reflect their desire to be in harmony with nature as in traditional Chinese culture. Moreover, 40 percent (n=67) of residents still value traditional Chinese-style furniture for their interiors (Zhang, 2013/2016).
The findings likewise suggest that communal courtyards foster social interaction and private courtyards facilitate self-cultivation. Residents still regard courtyards/gardens as important spaces for establishing harmony with their neighbors and with themselves. Nevertheless, neighborly relations are only partly influenced by the form and space of the courtyard housing, and are perhaps influenced even more so by a changing and polarizing society, socio-economic differences, housing tenure, modern lifestyles, community involvement, common language, cultural awareness, and the cultural background of the residents (Zhang, 2013(Zhang, /2016(Zhang, , 2015b(Zhang, , 2016a.
The findings also show that the communal courtyards help sustain some traditional Chinese cultural activities. The primary function of a communal courtyard is to maintain health/natural healing. However, many cultural activities are much less or no longer partaken in the communal courtyards, likely due to such factors as time, climate, courtyard ownership, yard size, facilities, and so on (Zhang, 2013(Zhang, /2016(Zhang, , 2016a. These results indicate that the new courtyard housing projects are only culturally sustainable to various degrees and in different contexts; they have not achieved this harmonious state of being due to a multitude of issues mentioned above and discussed in depth and detail in the book Courtyard Housing and Cultural Sustainability: Theory, Practice, and Product (Zhang, 2013/2016) published by Ashgate/Routledge.  com (2014a, 2014b, 2014c), Wu (1991Wu ( , 1994Wu ( , 1999, Zhang (2006Zhang ( , 2011Zhang ( , 2013Zhang ( /2016Zhang ( , 2016a.   It is noted that the number of Chinesestyle courtyard garden villa estates constructed in/around Suzhou (n=13) is much higher than that of Beijing (n=3) ( Table 3), possibly due to the more advanced economic development in southern regions of China than that in the north.

2005-2008)
is located in Beijing's Chaoyang district, adjacent to the Riviera Villa Estate, and west of Xiangjiang bei lu (Riviera Road North). It is in the heart of high-end villa zone surrounded by highways radiating in all directions, about 3 km from the northern 5th ring road, and 10.5 km from Beijing International Airport. It is the closest villa estate to the inner city.
Occupying a land area of 48 hectares with a built-up area of 115,000 sqm, Guantang has 329 units of 2½-storey (with semi-basement) single-family luxury homes classified into five plan-types and three unit-sizes: 300 sqm, 350 sqm, and 450 sqm, with two courtyard-/gardensizes: 290 sqm and 320 sqm, all of which have incorporated traditional Chinese architectural features, applied conventional craftsmanship in the building of enclosing walls, gates, grey-color pitched-tile roofs, elements in traditional façades, and equipped with modern interior facilities. The frontyard, central courtyard (sometimes sideyard), and backyard within each property boundary generate a gradual privacy and a series of activity spaces as in traditional Chinese houses. Meanwhile, these outdoor spaces allow sunlight/daylight and fresh air to enter indoors. The author's site visit of the estate in 2014 found that the design of some private courtyards has borrowed elements in classical Suzhou gardens, such as fish pond, pavilion, and so on, generating a sense of "harmony with nature." Inside the Guantang villa estate, the width of the roads and alleys is 6 m and 4 m, respectively. These widths have nostalgically imitated traditional Beijing's hutong (lanes), and functionally, 6 m is wide enough for fire engines to pass through in case of emergency. Moreover, the design is compatible with Beijing's cross axes and ring-road system, forming a clear spatial sequence from wide streets, to narrow lanes, to private courtyards/gardens.
Guantang is a poetic approach to contemporary Chinese housing design, and a picturesque setting for both visitors and residents. Walking or driving through the estate, one can sense the lingering charm of old Beijing, while the residents can enjoy the comfortability of modern living. However, the verandasa traditional transitional space between indoors and outdoors, are eliminated, which is a loss of a protective zone for enjoying the courtyard in different weather conditions. Guantang has attempted to modernize classical Beijing courtyard houses, meanwhile, incorporating the interior circulation systems in Western villa designs. Its layouts meet ecological design principles of having large space with small room-depth and using perimeter to link interiors to afford more sunlight/daylight and thermal insulation. It represents not only a return to Chinese courtyard life, ideology, and spiritual realm, but also to absorb foreign architectural culture to create a housing product that is both unique and beneficial. The buildings are all at humanscale; they establish a balance between privacy and community, and a link between nature and culture. They are concrete embodiments of Confucian "harmony with humans" and Daoist "harmony with nature" continually present in contemporary China, and archetypes of architectural acculturation of the East and the West.
However, only very rich Chinese households can afford such luxury homes. Some of the owners only use their villa as a weekend and/or holiday retreat, it nevertheless showcases their wealth and serves as a symbol of their social status.

Suzhou Fuyuan Chinese-Style Courtyard Garden Villa Estate (b. 2007-2008)
Suzhou Fuyuan (苏州福园, "Suzhou Fortune Garden Villa Estate," b. 2007-2008 was built in the Town of Guangfu near the Lake Tai, about 25 km west of Suzhou City Center. The estate's name has used the familiar Chinese character fu (福), which can be translated into English as "good fortune," "good luck," or "happiness." Its name conveys that the designer or developer wished to bring harmony and prosperity to this residential environment.
Occupying a land area of 6.94 hectares with a built-up area of 63,372 sqm, Suzhou Fuyuan has 142 units of 2½-storey (with semi-basement) Chinese-style single-family luxury homes, with the interior space ranging from 290-500 sqm, and private gardens from 150-200 sqm. Each unit has a two-car garage and two gates, one gate at the front and the other at the back. Each household has a frontyard/garden, a sunken central courtyard/garden, and a sunken backyard/garden, forming a series of threedimensional gardens connecting to the interiors, and separating the lively spaces from the quiet ones. These courtyard garden villas combine the style and features in traditional Suzhou houses and gardens, meanwhile, providing an 8000 sqm communal garden (塔影园,         Table 4 shows that compared with the firstgeneration new courtyard housing built in Beijing and Suzhou, the second-generation Chinese-style courtyard garden villas in these two cities are much more enhanced. The average unit size has increased more than three times, from 70 sqm to 240 sqm. The firstgeneration new courtyard housing estates have an average volume ratio of 1.6, but it should be lower than 1.5 (a standard value of measurement for a comfortable living environment in China). This outcome is caused by the two Beijing projects whose volume ratio of 2.5 and 2 have brought up the figure while the three Suzhou projects all have a satisfactory volume ratio under 1.5. Whereas the secondgeneration Chinese-style courtyard garden villa estates' average volume ratio of 0.76 is much lower than 1.5. The first-generation new courtyard housing estates' average greening ratio is ±30%, which is lower than the 40% minimum requirement for a comfortable residential quarter in China; while the secondgeneration Chinese-style courtyard garden villa estates have an average greening ratio of ±50%, which is higher than the 40% benchmark.

DISCUSSION
Arguably, the first-generation new courtyard housing estates were all built in the inner cities of Beijing and Suzhou where the land is scarce and population density high, it would be very difficult to meet current design standards for volume ratio and greening ratio. The second-generation Chinese-style courtyard garden villas are all located in the suburbs of Beijing where the land is not so constraint. In Suzhou, although some of the courtyard garden villa estates are located in the inner city, Suzhou seems to have less restricted planning policies that have allowed more ideal design solutions. It may also be true that to meet China's newlyrich marketers' demands, the designers of the courtyard garden villas have learned the lessons from the first-generation new courtyard housing experiments, and have taken comfortability and sustainability into their design considerations, which in turn, have afforded more harmony with nature and with humans than the first-generation projects.
Compared with traditional Chinese courtyard houses of timber-framed structures, the new courtyard housing and courtyard garden villas are all of steel and concrete constructions equipped with modern facilities, which should be more enduring. Moreover, the second-generation Chinese-style courtyard garden villas all have private courtyards/gardens where more self-cultivation may happen than the first-generation new courtyard housing with mainly communal courtyards. However, there would be less social interaction to occur in the courtyard garden villas than that in the new courtyard housing estates' communal courtyards.
Chinese-style courtyard garden villa estates were also built in other parts of China, such as the Qinghua Fang (清华坊, b. 2002) in Chengdu and the Number Five Garden Villa Estate in Shenzhen (深圳第五园, b. 2005-2009), among others.
The planners, architects, and builders of these villa estates wanted to test the possibility of realizing a dream of traditional life in contemporary Chinese society. They used modern materials and technologies to explore a new way to construct a residential environment in honor of Chinese architectural history and philosophy, but also to meet modern living requirements. The above projects demonstrate a more sensitive approach to Chinese housing development to better fit into its cultural landscape; they make a stark contrast to some European-and North American-style suburban villa estates constructed in China since the 1990s.
For example, in the suburbs of Beijing, there built the American-Canadian-style Dragon Villa Estate (龙苑别墅, b. 1995)  China's villa estate development is confined by its current socio-economic conditions; only those "on the top of the pyramid" can afford such high-end homes, with developers cognizant of losing money if they aim at middle-class citizens.